Ethical Animal Research: The 3Rs as Guiding Principles

The American Physiological Society (APS) supports excellence in research, teaching and service. As a part of this effort, APS supports the “3Rs,” a concept proposed by William Russel and Rex Burch in “The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique.” First published in 1959, the 3Rs—Reduction, Refinement and Replacement—serve as a guiding principle for animal research.  

• Reduction. Using the appropriate number of animals to conduct research in a way that is reproducible and statistically meaningful. 
• Refinement. Utilization of methods that minimize pain and distress in animal subjects.  
• Replacement. Utilization of methods that circumvent in vivo animal experiments, where possible. 

The Society’s Guiding Principles in the Care and Use of Vertebrate Animals in Research and Training expects that Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees will consider the 3Rs in their review of animal research protocols.